![]() On a larger scale, he saw that history moved through periods governed by universal states followed by shorter periods of religious rule. He believed that the history of a civilization was largely the record of its response to a unique challenge. In A Study of History (1934–1961), he argued that civilizations emerge when faced with physical or social challenges. Toynbee was influenced by his reading of Spengler's work. ![]() According to him, these cycles repeat themselves as new societies develop. ![]() ![]() In The Decline of the West (1918–1922), Spengler proposed that individual societies have a life cycle similar to living organisms: they experience periods of growth, maturity, and decline. In the twentieth century, Oswald Spengler (1880–1936) and Arnold Toynbee (1889–1975) presented important theories of historical cycles. ![]()
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